Lego Structure

Structure is dependent on strategy. If an organization has vertical integration then they operate a functional structure, which gives efficiency through economies of scale. If an organization uses a diversification structure then there is a business unit structure which gives customer responsiveness. However, many firms have a hybrid structure; this type of structure balances efficiency and customer responsiveness. A company also can choose to outsource through a contract with another company for them to perform an activity along their value chain.Many companies choose to outsource work which is not vital to their core in order to take advantage of cheap labor, there is a trade-off between cost and quality. LOGO has a functional structure as it is split into sectors such as markets & products, global supply chain & community, education & direct. Under each of these functions are executives for each product and regional area, which proves for an effective centralized communication str ucture. Since its creation LOGO has been privately owned by the Kirk Christiansen family.The Corporate management of LOGO consists of the CEO, SCOFF amp; 4 executive Vice Presidents who each have their own business area. Previously, to develop stronger leaders with skills to take groups into new areas managers were moved around rapidly. After 6-12 months in one position, managers were rotated or replaced by someone who could do better. The reasoning for this was general leadership experience was considered more valuable than specialized direct experience with LOGO toys. Also during this period (1999 – 2004) senior management consolidated 25 country-level sales companies into 5 regional entities.In late 2003, LOGO was facing a dire situation and changes were required. Ploughman (CEO) and 4/14 person management team were asked to leave the company by the Christiansen family. 517 senior manufacturing executives were fired due to differing views on what direction LOGO needed to t ake to become successful again. New CEO, Inductors also decided to change the management team policies. LOGO has become focused on specializing their managers to make them the best they could possibly be.Managers have stayed in the same position for the last few years and are focused on upgrading their capabilities and becoming more strategic as they truly understand their roles and business areas. LOGO has been focused on having a family like atmosphere and an approachable CEO to encourage owner/CEO relations, strong alignment with their brand vision, celebrating loyal employees and a willingness to give your best. To create an environment for employees to thrive, LOGO had their management emphasize collaboration between different departments and create opportunities for people to meet other employees through inter-department meetings.In the early sass, many of the LOGO groups competitors outsourced their manufacturing to the Far East due to the cheaper costs. LOGO kept their manuf acturing processes in-house as their strategy is highly focused on quality to maintain their brand reputation upheld since 1932. The mentality of keeping expansions in-house was to protect the LOGO brand, and that only LOGO sufficiently knows their brand and the expression of it could therefore not be outsourced. LOGO later decided to outsource to Flatirons, an electronics manufacturing service Flatirons and move production back in-house as manufacturing is core to LOGO.Flatirons was too different from LOGO and their inventory accuracy fell, McCollum betimes shortened because of lower maintenance levels and in some cases purchasing costs rose instead of falling. LEO now mainly outsource where they lack the in-house capabilities like LOGO NOMINATORS electronics. Overall, LOGO has made appropriate changes to better match their structure to their strategy by having experienced managers in specialized roles with specific knowledge and experience of LOGO products. Their functional struct ure has allowed LOGO to continue with their efficiency required for their innovative build, differentiation strategy.

How people survive the work place political jungle Essay

Distinguish between positive and negative corporate politics and explain how these can influence employment engagement. The essay will seek to distinguish between positive and negative corporate politics. The writer will start by defining corporate politics in trying to have an understanding of corporate politics and how it influence employee engagement Kakabadse (1983) cited by Armstrong defines politics as ‘a process, that of influencing individuals and groups of people to your point of view, where you cannot rely on authority’. Organizations consist of individuals who, while they are ostensibly there to achieve a common purpose, are, at the same time, driven by their own needs to achieve their own goals (Armstrong, 2009). There is significant difference between corporate politics and negative corporate politics. This can seen from the effect the two have on employee engagement and the purpose of the individual that is to say positive corporate politics is done as tool mainly by management and supervisors to try and influence other staff so as to meet organisational goals. Positive corporate politics is normal done to the benefit of the organisation as a whole. On the other hand negative corporate politics is self fulfilling – it is aimed achieving self interests and in most cases it is against organisational goals Positive corporate politics include the process of influencing individual endeavour and ambition to the common good. Some individuals genuinely believe that using political means to achieve their goals will benefit the organization as well as themselves. Positive corporate politics can thus illustrated in the following case; Mrs Takuta is the Personnel at ZTRD Development Bank and is deputised by Taurai who she went to the same University and the two were in the same class. Taurai was more intelligent than his supervisor and because of the relation between the two, Mrs Takuta always find it difficult to give Taurai orders and in extreme situations taurai will challenge his boss. In the quest to have work done through her junior, Mrs T akuta will use the following statement â€Å"the HR Manager wants the report done by the end of the day†. Mrs Takuta would use the HR Manager’s authority to influence Taurai to perform his duties. To the same effect, Positive corporate politics can increase efficiency, form interpersonal relationships, expedite change, and profit the organization and its members simultaneously. This can be achieved if those in power are able to use their power to influence members of staff to this effect. Thus  positive corporate politics would also include the different powers vested in them to influence positive employee engagement and increase in productivity. Management can give their employees the power to make decisions about their jobs – flexible autonomy, reward for good performance among others. Positive corporate politics involves action by individuals or groups to acquire develop and use power and other resources in order to obtain preferred outcomes (Hellriegel, Slocum and Woodman, 1995) Armstrong (2009) defines power as the capacity to secure the dominance of one’s goa ls or value over others. Individuals and managers can thus influence directly and indirectly using the various types of powers. French and Raven (1959) cited by Armstrong identified the four different types of powers that can be used to influence other employees and the power are; reward power, coercive power, expert power and legitimate power. Reward power is when individuals and managers use the reward power to influence or obtain compliance from subordinates by promising or granting rewards that includes salary increase, bonuses or even promotions. It is the management who normal use this power positively to achieve company goals. Coercive power is used to obtain compliance through threats of punishment and actual punishment. For example promising to fire an employee if they use company vehicles for personal use. The ability to influence others with the power anchored in one’s formal position of authority thus the legitimate power. Individuals can use their legitimate positions of authority to get things done through others. Legitimate power focuses constructively on job performance. Expert power is when individuals have influence because of the valueable information or knowledge they posses. The supervisor’s power is enhanced because they know about work schedules and assignments before their subordinates. Corporate politics involves struggles between social entities for resources, personal conflict and a variety of influence tactics executed by individuals and groups to obtain benefits and goals in different ways (Molm 1997) cited by Vigoda, (2000). Molm’s view of corporate politics would to a greater extent reflect negative corporate politics. Ferris, Russ, and Fundt, (1989) cited by Vigoda (2000) defines negative corporate politics as behaviour strategically designed to maximise self interests. Corporate politics can contradict the collective organisational goals or the interests of other people. Medison etal 1980) cited by Vigoda, (2000) observed that when  individuals were asked to describe work place politics they would list self serving and manipulative activities. It can then be understood that negative corporate benefits individuals at the expense of the entire organisation or a work unit. The behaviour is thus associated with manipulation, defamation, subversiveness and illegitimate use of power to attain one’s objectives. Corporate politics can then lead to job anxiety, decrease job satisfaction, and withdrawal from the organisation. Dorory (1993) cited by Vigoda, (2000) found that corporate politics has a potential demaging effect especially on lower status employees. He speculated that employees who lacked a stable power base and effective means of influencing perceived organisational politics as a source of frastiration and react by showing negative attitude towards the organisation. Employees can feel isolated and unhappy if they are not part of a cohesive team or if they are bedevilled by disruptive power politics. In conclusion, one can therefore generalise that positive corporate politics reinforces employee engagement. Employees tend to put more effort either because they expect a reward or have been promised reward for such performance. That is to say employees can be influenced by the reward power. Employees work hard or do not do unwanted behaviours to avoid punishment. in most cases, employees will also give respect to those in authority thus the legitimate power. However, on the other hand, employee will not perform as expected thats negative engagement which can be caused by negative corporate politics. Using case studies, discuss how people within an organisation can use political tactics to survive the corporate political jungle? Individuals within an organisation which can be likened to a political jungle act out roles in efforts to establish identities they wish to convey, and which can result in personal gain. It should also be noted that people alter the image they choose to present, and the strategy used to present this image, based on the situation they are in and the outcomes they hope to achieve that is how they intend to survive (Chad etal 2003). To this effect, it is important to note that individuals do not necessarily use the same tactic in every situation. Likewise, different individuals may choose different tactics when faced with similar situations. For example, whereas one individual may use self-promotion to obtain a job offer, that same individual may use  ingratiation or rationality in an attempt to obtain a promotion or pay raise. On the other hand, another individual, when faced with the same situation, may use ingratiation to obtain a job offer and assertiveness or self-promotion to win a pay raise. Different individuals may use a number of contextual factors which influence tactics an individual chooses to use, under what circumstances he or she chooses to use them, and how effective the tactic of choice will be. Such factors include the relative power of the parties, the direction of the influence attempt, the objective of the influence attempt, and the political skill of the influencer (Falbe & Yukl, 1992; Ferris, Perrewe, Anthony, & Gilmore, 2000) cited by Chad etal (2003). Buelens etal (2011) also subscribe to the same tactics as identified by Appelbaum and Brent (1998). He pointed out that individuals would use different tactics to get influence within an organisation or rather to get favours and promotions from their bosses. It is however believed that political behaviour is far less common and less intense among employees in lower-level positions than among employees in higher-level positions. There are a variety of political tactics used by employees at almost every organizational level that include forming coalitions and networks, impression management, information management, pursue line responsibility , ingratiation , rational persuasion, consultation and exchange Appelbaum and Brent (1998) . Forming coalitions and networks best known as networking, is a political tactic which consists of befriending important people. These people may not be in positions of any obvious political value but their jobs may provide them with information that could be useful to have. Some people ï ¬ nd that forming friendships with people in upper-level management can help them gain access to important information (Appelbaum and Brent (1998). The above can be illustrated in the following case: Zikanda was a messenger a t RIT Energy. Despite the fact that Zikanda was just a messenger, other senior employees would always give him respect and at most times conform to his needs and favours. For many years in the same organisation, I never realised why even middle level managers would actually conform to unreasonable demands of a mere messenger. Zikanda would take the pool car home as and when he feel like and no one would question that and worse of other senior employee would commute or even ask for transport from him. I later realised that his power or influence was because of his relationship with the General  Manager. Zikanda was no relative with the boss but has managed to form a network with the General Manager they were friends. Zikanda every lunch time would go to the General Manager’s office ask him what he want for lunch. It was Zikanda’s job to be sent to buy him lunch however it was the way the whole thing was done, he would at times buy him lunch with his own monies. The General Manager and Zikanda were just friends they were just too close. Other employees were not comfortable with this relation there were not sure what information the two buddies share. Zikanda has managed to make a network with the General Manager. Impression management is a simple tactic that most people uses from time to time is the management of their outward appearance and style in the quest of trying to impress those in authority. Generally, most organizations prefer a particular image that consists of being loyal, attentive, honest, neatly groomed and sociable. By deliberately trying to exhibit this preferred image, an individual can make a positive impression on inï ¬â€šuential members of the organization. As illustrated in the case of Transport officer who has turned himself to driver. Nhetuka is a transport officer at ZBM Company. Mr Nhetuka has turned himself into a driver in trying to impress management. Nhetuka is always driving managers when he is supposed to delegate drivers to drive managers around. Not only that he takes the Area Manager’s son to and from school a job which is supposed to be done by company driver. Information management is a tactic consisting of managing the information that is shared with others. The nature, as well as the timing, of information given out can have strong effects on others’ conduct (Appelbaum and Brent (1998). People who play the information management game are not likely to lie or spread misinformation, but they rely on the carefully planned release of valid information to obtain their ends (Vecchio and Appelbaum, 1995, p. 323) cited by Appelbaum and Brent (1998). An example can be given of a personnel Clerk who by virtue of his job has access to very important information to include how people can get access to loans among others. The person having such a position can sort respect and influence to the extent that he is able to make people lower themselves to get that information. In a political jungle despite the fact that this information should be given to all employees, one can choose to with hold the information for his own benefit. Pursuing core business within an organization, some positions are more closely tied to the primary  mission of the organization thus the line positions. They are at the very heart of the organization. While staff people may come to wield great power within their own territories, it is the people who do core business who usually â€Å"call the shots† on major issues. Core staff not only makes the more important decisions within the organization, they are also more likely to be promoted to top-level exe cutive positions. In many organizations, there is a preferred department of origin and career path for top- level managers. Therefore, one way to gain inï ¬â€šuence within an organization is to be assigned to a core position. It will often provide more visibility, inï ¬â€šuence, and upward mobility. A case to support the effect of core position for influence in the in an organisation; Takunda was an administration clerk ZETDC an organisation whose core business is to transmit and distribute electricity. He worked very hard for ten years furthering his qualification hoping that one day he will be promoted and be given a higher grade but nothing cane his way. ZETDC would on get people with 5 ‘O’ Level train them as electricians and give them good grades despite that they only posses a Certificate in Electrical power engineering. Takunda then decided to change the career and started a programme at the Polytechnic were he attained a Certificate in Electrical Power Engineering. And it was only then Takunda was recognised and promoted. ‘Ingratiation tactic involves giving compliments or doing favours for superiors or co-workers. Most people have a difficult time rejecting the positive advances of others. Ingratiation usually works as a tactic insofar as the target often feels positive toward the source even if the ingratiation attempt is fairly blatant and transparent. In the behavioural sciences, the notion of â€Å"social reciprocity† has been offered to help explain the process of ingratiation. In social reciprocity, there is a feeling of a social obligation to repay the positive actions of others with similar actions’ Appelbaum and Brent (1998). Appelbaum and Brent, (1998) defines ingratiation as an attempt by individuals to increase their attractiveness in the eyes of others. Ingratiation tends to be used more as an upward inï ¬â€šuence process than as a downward inï ¬â€šuence process. This tactic can best be observed when especial when one has a female boss how often do we pass complements to our female bosses, â€Å"nice hair style†, â€Å"nice dress† even if we don’t mean it. It is a political game most of us play to survive hash judgement from our bosses. In case of a Human resources clerk who  was left acting as Human Resources Officer. During the absence of his boss, Sipiwe was supposed to employ a Customer Care Clerk on a contract basis. Sipiwe knew that his boss’s daughter was unemployed and Sipiwe took this opportunity to employee the boss’s daughter without even consulting the boss. It was later discovered that Sipiwe did this because she had a boyfriend who was out of employment. Sipiwe calculated and realised that it would be easy for her to convince the boss to employ her boyfriend since she has employed the boss’s daughter. In a game of politics one has to be clever and calculative and be able to use politic al tactics to your best advantage. The case above illustrates a tactic called exchange. REFERENCE LIST Appelbaum, S..H. and Hughes, B. (1998) Ingratiation as a political tactic: Effects within the organisation; Journal of Management Decision Vol 36/2 Armstrong, M. (2009) Armstrong’s handbook of human resources management Practice; London, Kogan Pages. Buelens, M. etal (2011) Organisational Behaviour; Berkshire,McGrall- Hill Chad, A. etal (2003) Influence tactics and work outcomes; Journal of Organisational Behaviour Vol 24 No 1. Hellriegal, D. , Slocum, W. J. Jr. and Woodman, R. W. (1995), Organisational Behaviour;New York, West Publishing Company. Vigoda, E. (2000), Organisational Politics, Job attitudes and work outcomes: Exploration and implications for the Public Sector, Journal of Vocational Behaviour Vol 57. MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY FACULT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES BSC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT HONOURS DEGRE ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR [HRM 202] Assignment Cover Page Surname : NcubeName: Innocent Taurai Reg. Number: R135973GMode of Entry: VISITING Level 2.1 Lecturer: Mrs. Masitara Topic/Question: Distinguish between positive and negative corporate politics and explain how these can influence employment engagement. Using case studies, discuss how people within an organisation can use political tactics to survive the corporate political jungle?

Antonio Vivaldi: Introductory Concepts

Introductory Concepts Composed by Antonio Vivaldi,† L’inverno† (Winter) is the fourth concerto of a set of violin concertos named â€Å"Le Quattro Stagioni† (The four seasons) that belong to a more complex work titled â€Å"Il cimento dell’armonia e dell’inventione† (The Contest of Harmony and Invention) (Grasmeier) . The structure of this piece is in ternary form. The piece begins with a fast tempo and then slows down to finish fast and loud again. Vivaldi makes use of variety in this â€Å"Winter† composition through dynamic when the music suddenly changes its volume and also through changes in pace.Although this concert is performed only by string instruments (mainly violins) he also achieves variety by using different techniques among the instruments (like pizzicato). Vivaldi’s â€Å"Winter† is considered a program music which means it must tell a story. I believe he is able to evoke cold, ice, chattering teeth, shivering bodies, and wind. Beginning with a fast pace seems like a big storm is about to come, when the violins go in crescendo it feels almost like some people are running to get shelter, and the pizzicatos reminded me of shivering.I also believe that the high pitch of the violins helps to give the image of coldness. This masterpiece is played by an instrumental ensemble, more specifically, an orchestra and has a violin solo. The instruments involved are string instruments (violin being the predominant). The main melody or Idea A is played very loud and the violin solo is executed with bravura which gives more heart to the music. In all, I believe that this composition serves its purpose of creating mood and is also very delightful to listen to.

Assignment 5 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

5 - Assignment Example During this era, people used equipments to improve production operations. Scientific management methods and mass-production moving assembly lines were the innovation at that time. The supply chains at that time were suited to move the many products that were being produced. In the early 1970s, many manufacturers were good producers, but they were challenged by other firms that made higher quality products at lower costs. Therefore, the era was named lean manufacturing/quality control era, where many manufacturers mainly focused their attention on improving quality of their products. They also improved their supply chains. In the beginning of the year 1996, the information-engineering era began. Communication became the most important component in any business. The businesses have come up with effectively information technologies. In this era, the supply chains involve use the Internet and new information and communications technologies. This supply chains are faster compared to the others. The development and implementation of electricity, roads, rails, and communications systems provided ways in which supply was done. People and goods could be moved from their homes into factories. The supply chains at that time were suited to move the many products that were being produced. Therefore, the era was named lean manufacturing/quality control era, where many manufacturers mainly focused their attention on improving quality of their products. They also improved their supply chains (b) China and India and other low-cost providers in other nations that are responsible for increased outsourcing and off shoring fit into what is being said in this paper in that they develop competitive advantages. They make effective use of the Internet and other information technologies to provide high quality products at lower prices. They provide competition to other firms making them even more vigilant. This improves the global competitiveness among

Analysing specific financial issues in Cable & Wireless Communications Essay

Analysing specific financial issues in Cable & Wireless Communications plc - Essay Example that are going to be included in the paper are: the stock market, company background, financial performance and investor values, gearing impact on investment, and the final summary section. The financial performance of the company will be evaluated over the last five years. The stock market is the most popular form of investment in the world. The largest and most liquid stock market in the United Kingdom is the London Stock Exchange (LSE). Once a firm is listed in the London Stock Exchange it becomes a public company. Investors can achieve investments in public companies by buying their common stock. Purchasing a common stock implies that the investor gain ownership in the company. To purchase common stocks a person must buy the stocks from a stockbroker. Due to advances in technology people today can purchase stocks using the services of online brokerage firms such as Scottrade. Scottrade charges its customers $7 per trade (Scottrade, 2014). The values of stocks sold in the stock market vary each minute while the market is open. Investing in the stock market can help a person gain wealth, but people must be aware that investing in common stocks is a high risk proposition. In order to lower the risk of investing in the stock market an investor must uti lize a diversification strategy. Diversification can be defined as spreading a portfolio over many investments to avoid excessive exposure to any one source of risk (Bodie, Kane, Marcus, 2002). The safest investment in common stocks that an investor can make is buying blue chip stocks. Blue chip stocks can be defined as a stock of a large, well-established and financially sound company that has operate for many years and whose market capitalization is in the billions of pounds (Investopedia, 2014). From the perspective of corporations the stock market serves the purpose of being a mechanism to raise money. Companies that become public enter the market through an initial public offering (IPO). Companies that already

W.E.B. DuBois life and role in the history of education Essay

W.E.B. DuBois life and role in the history of education - Essay Example William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was an influential African American intellectual leader in the United States, who lived between 1868 and 1963.As a sociologist, historian, civil right activist, Pan-Africanist, author, editor and educator, W.E.B. Du Bois explored scholarship, integration, national self determination, human rights, cultural and economic separatism, politics, third world solidarity, expatriation and international communism as possible solutions to the issue of racism that was prevalent in the twentieth century America society in which he lived (Lewis, 2001). W.E.B. Du Bois emerged in the limelight through his opposition to Booker T. Washington alleged idea of accommodation as a solution to the problems affecting the African-American population (Calhoun et al., 2009). In place of the idea of accommodation, W.E.B. Du Bois advocated increased political participation of African Americans to ensure civil rights and challenged African-Americans to achieved greater successes i n their endeavors and become exceptional leaders in their communities to ensure progress of the African-American race. Indeed, W.E.B Du Bois suggested that African-Americans should focus on obtaining higher education in the liberal arts as this will equip them to negotiate and change a society that is dominated by racism, hate and prejudice (Alridge 2008). As a mixed-race son of a lone impoverished mother, W.E.B. Du Bois faced challenges that shaped his educational ideology. He worked after-school to support himself and his mother, who could not work as a result of stroke. His childhood experiences and those at school; in addition to the relationships he forged while at schools nourished his ideology that education provides the means through which African American can advance their socio-economic standing. Life of W.E.B. Du Bois: events that shape his thoughts W.E.B. Du Bois was born on February 23, 1868, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, to Alfred Du Bois and Mary Silvina Burghar dt Du Bois (Alridge, 2008). Great Barrington, where W.E.B. Du Bois grew up, was a predominantly Anglo-American settlement. His maternal family was part of the relatively very small black population in Great Barrington while his father, who was of a mixed race – French Huguenot and African – was from Haiti (Wolters, 2003). Before W.E.B. Du Bois was two years old, his father deserted the family. While still young, Du Bois’ mother suffered stroke that rendered her incapable of working. Thus, the family relied on charity from family members and the income from W.E.B. Du Bois after-school work. The predominantly white population of Great Barrington notwithstanding, Du Bois never felt separated while at school (Du Bois, 1903). In fact, some neighborhood whites rented Du Bois and his mother a house in Great Barrington (Du Bois, 1903). However, a certain experience during a game of â€Å"calling cards† when a white girl refused to accept his card on the basis of his skin color, led him to the realization that racism is ingrained in the thinking and life of some people in the American society (Du Bois, 1903). As a young boy working to support his incapacitated mother and himself, he realized early in life that education holds the key to the door of economic and social emancipation and betterment of not only his family but that of other African-Americans. His successes in his academic pursuit confirmed his belief and also equipped him in his quest for the empowerment of African Americans. Encouraged by his teachers, who recognized his intellectual potentials, he majored in classical courses in high school (Du Bois, 1903). He attended Fisk University, Harvard University and University of Berlin. His study stay at Berlin led to his intellectual maturation as he was opportune to study under German prominent social scientists. He also travelled extensively throughout Europe during his study at Berlin. These experiences and relationships nourished and shaped W.E.B. Du

Competitive Strategy, Resources, and Competencies Assignment

Competitive Strategy, Resources, and Competencies - Assignment Example These analyses include SWOT, Pestle, and Ansoff matrix among others. This paper explores and explains the meanings of some of these analyses, including SWOT, pestles, BCG, Porter’s five forces, core competencies, industry life cycle, and Ansoff matrix. Sometimes referred to as PEST, PESTLE analysis is a tool used by businesses analyze their marketing competitiveness. Generally, PESTLE helps firms to study and track the environment in which they operate or are intending to venture into. It is thus a vital tool for any business intending to launch a new product/projector markets. Each letter in the word PESTLE stands for certain factors that are vital to business operations and viability. While the P denotes Political, E stands for Economic, S for Social, T for Technological, L for Legal and E for Environmental factors (Porter, 1998). To keep track of the environment in which it operates, a business should consider all the factors that affect its productivity and profitability and PESTLE comes in handy as a tool for analyzing the whole environment for business ideas or plans. In fact, in recent times, ethical concerns have been added to PESTLE analysis. In a PESTLE analysis, a business must recognize the political situation (governme nt influences), the prevalent economic factors (inflation rate, interest rates, foreign exchange rates,), the culture of a market (cultural trends, demographics, and population analytics), technologies (automation, research, and development), legislation (consumer laws, safety standards, labor laws), and the environmental concerns (climate, weather, geographical location) (Porter, 1998). SWOT analysis is perhaps the most common business analysis tool used in scanning internal and external environments for business strategic planning. These factors are categorized as internal: strengths (S) or weaknesses (W), and external, which are opportunities (O) and threats (T).  Ã‚  

Why has the Mafia been able to survive for so long, despite enormous Essay

Why has the Mafia been able to survive for so long, despite enormous pressure from law enforcement - Essay Example Evidently, there are several notable reasons as to why the mafia has continuously survived for so long despite pressure from law enforcers. Foremost, the mafia is uniquely structured in its organization by having friends in centers of influence of power. Incidentally, the Sicilian mafia has been known to bankroll the elections of political personalities with close ties to it. Evidently, in 2008, a man who was previously colluding with the mafia was re-elected into parliament. This just shows the political backing that the mafia enjoys as support. Moreover, the types of illegal business operations conducted by the mafia have led to the control of enormous resources. Evidently, the mafia engages in drug trafficking, gambling, extortions, prostitution and street taxes. As a result, the high resource base at the mafia’s control aids them in corrupting government officials and law enforcers that can further aid and abet their illegal activities. The mafia equally has a hierarchical structure of authority among the member that guarantees continuity. Consequently, the crime boss or Capo Famiglia is succeeded by the capo bastone or underboss in the event of anything such as death or incarceration to the crime boss. As a result, breaking the chain of authority and operation of the mafia has proven to be quite a problem to law

Children of heaven Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Children of heaven - Essay Example Note here that Zarah chose the father instead of the mother. In the same scene also, their parents were talking about her mother’s slip disk where the wife’s opinion of wanting to have a surgery was readily overruled by the husband. Throughout the film, we can see the struggle of the film where the family is disenfranchised due to their poverty and their options are limited because their social network only revolves around each other and to their creditors and employers. Gender segregation is depicted in the film particularly in the scene where Zarah saw her pink shoes being worn by a classmate. It implies that children are already isolated from the other male gender and this implies that the building facilities also support segregation when it is in practice. For example, the school building of Zarah must have facilities and restrooms that were designed for girls instead of boys. The disparity between the poor and the rich is very wide and this is manifested in their neighborhoods. In Ali’s neighborhood, it is characterized by abject poverty where they are cramped together in a small house. Their infrastructure is also unhealthy because there are open canals where Zarah chased her shoes. They have no gates and have to pass by an alley before getting to their house. The rich neighborhood was portrayed in the film to be located in North Tehran, Iran. Its location is quite far from the poor neighborhood and their long walk and ride in their bike is symbolic of the disparity between the rich and the poor in their society. The rich neighborhood, particularly the grandfather who hired Ali’s father to be a gardener had gated houses, with facilities such as swimming pool, playground and huge enough to have a garden and even trees while Ali and her sister are cramped in a small house in their neighborhood. We could see how

Alignment of HRM with Business Strategies Term Paper

Alignment of HRM with Business Strategies - Term Paper Example This quality can only be developed when human resource manager is given an active role in the growth and development of an organization. Multinational companies are considered as a pioneer in developing the latest HR system which can benefit the organization. Marriot is one of the well-known restaurant chains working in the USA. They have developed there human resource management systems in such a way that employees are considered as one of the valuable assets of the organization. The contribution of human resource management is an important factor to achieve the desired results for the organization like Marriot. Aruba Marriot believes that employees should be well aware of the role which he or she has to play to the overall productivity of the organization. HR can only be considered as a business partner when the employees know about the strategic direction which has been set by the HR professionals and top management collectively. Aruba Marriot communicates its strategic directions by providing signals within the job description and job specifications. HR professionals at Aruba believe that potential employers can only contribute positively when he has clear direction about where the company is heading in the next five to ten years (Rosenbloom, 2007). The quality of the human resource management function can also be analyzed by looking at the level of positions which are often available within the organization. For example, if an organization keeps on creating new vacancies for its new departments and functions then it can be inferred that the organization is growing and the human resource department is attracting new talent towards their organization. However, if an organization keeps on introducing same vacancies after every five to six months then it can be inferred that organization is not able to retain talented employees or there is some issue with the culture prevailing within the organization. As far as the case of Aruba Marriot is concerned, the orga nization is growing and they are offering diverse positions within the organization so that they can meet the human resource requirement. Some key positions which are often offered at Aruba Marriot include front desk officer, vacation planner, door person, vacation planning coordinator etc. The organization is associated with hospitality services business; therefore the positions available often require extrovert persons to deal with the customers politely. Aruba Marriot is a company of good repute, therefore, the people working at this organization should be well aware of the standards which could be expected from them. The organization has associated itself with well-known health and safety standard union which ensures the quality services provided by Aruba Marriot. HR manuals of an organization also indicate the level of competency and essential skills required by the organization for the effective performance of task, duties and responsibilities (Ghemawat, 2003). There are many interesting job positions offered by Aruba Marriot. As far as my preferred choice is concerned I believe that the job of front desk officer suits the personality traits at which I am good. Extroversion is almost essential in the hospitality services, therefore, I have the right kind of skill to excel in the field of hospitality in general while the job of front desk officer in particular. This job also requires public relation skills, therefore, the contacts which I have developed during my education can also help in attracting potential clients for Aruba Marriot.  Ã‚  

Risky aspects of the economic growth of China Essay

Risky aspects of the economic growth of China - Essay Example The corporate debt in China has increased from 108 per cent to 122 per cent in the one year from 2011 to 2012, and has achieved its highest level in the last 15 years (Roberts). As a result of this, China has become the most debt-laden country in the world. Andrew Batson, the GK Dragonomics Research Director comments on the effect of debt crisis on companies operating in China in these words, â€Å"Companies have seen their business slowing down and revenues were not what they had expected. They have bridged the gap by taking on more debt† (Batson cited in Roberts). A researcher from the State Council’s National Development and Research Center, Li Zuojun made a speech on 17 September 2011. This speech made at the Changsha Alumni Organization of Huazhong University of Science and Technology’s internal meeting spread virally over the Internet. A post over the largest social media website of China Weibo got forwarded over 9000 times (Zitan). Mainland media portals l ike Sina and Sohu also widely reported this information. Li Zuojun noted that banks, local governments, and small and medium-sized companies in China are undergoing bankruptcies that serve as the signs of economic crisis nationwide. In his speech, Li presented four reasons for predicting China as the next stop for financial crisis. Those reasons are economic, hot money, political, and cycles (Zitan). Risky aspects of the economic growth of China Economic The two main causes of the possibility of occurrence of financial crisis in China are the worsening local debt crises and the bursting bubble of real estate. According to Li, the overall economic downturn in China has exposed the small and medium sized companies to financial challenges that have played an important role in reducing the commercial and industrial tax revenues. Local governments in China have suffered from the reduction of revenues because of the depression in the industry of real estate. Local governments in China hav e immense are bearing the pressure of spending more over a whole range of items that include but are not limited to local infrastructure, national defense, social insurance policies, construction of houses, maintaining social stability, and improvement of the hydraulic structures. However, as the local debts are maturing, local governments are facing even more pressure and are being forced into bankruptcy. In the long run, this would cause the banks to declare bankruptcy and eventually, Chinese citizens would have to bear the burden of the debt. Therefore, Li foresees a full-blown economic crisis. Hot money Although China’s economy is slowing down, the US is undergoing an economic recovery at the same time. This is contributing to the flow of large sums of the international hot money out of China. As a result of this, economic implosion is taking place in China. Political New leaders in China have risen as a result of the leadership transition of the year 2013. The priorities of most of the new leaders are not addressing economic woes of China. It takes anywhere between three and five months for a new leader to expose the past problems after taking charge. Li estimated the mid of the year 2013 to be the most probable recognition of the economic collapse of China. â€Å"Following the economic bubble bursting, there will be a subsequent period of suffering. But for the new leaders, this is nothing bad, since they are not to blame for the suffering†¦With the economic bubble bursting, the new leadership can adopt practical approaches. †¦ New political achievements will be gained more easily, since the starting point is comparatively low†

Womens Rights Essay Example for Free

Womens Rights Essay Women’s Rights have changed without a doubt since 1945. Many opportunities arose for women and women could do things they could never do before. They were able to voice their opinions without being suppressed and this made women very happy. Prior to 1945, women’s rights were limited in areas such as politics, employment opportunities and social opportunities available to them. Largely, women were expected to be wives, mothers and work within the home; this was particularly the case for middle class women who did not suffer the financial burden of providing for their families. Prior to 1945, women had limited opportunities to voice their concerns and interests in public spaces and often suffered without legal or social support within abusive family situations. This began to change with the rise of second wave feminist movement which focused in equality for women. Politics Prior to 1945, women had limited voices to discuss issues of equality in the political arena. This changed as feminists such as Germaine Greer wrote and encouraged women to be politically active. The Women’s Electoral Lobby formed in 1972 which lobbied for childcare and maternity leave. In 1975, the Whitlam Government elected women’s representative; Elizabeth Reid to address women’s rights in the political arena. Employment During the early 1970s, there was a significant push to make tertiary education in Australia more accessible to working and middle class Australians. The Whitlam Labor Government abolished university fees on January 1st 1974. Equal pay progression was up to 1974 including an adult minimum wage. Different jobs were available to women due to free tertiary education allowing social mobility. Social mobility was the ability to change social classes. The Anti-Discrimination (1985) made it unable to discriminate on the grounds of gender or pregnancy. Social Change Women’s rights within society and the home as well as expectations altered as women gained greater voices within society. In 1961, the introduction of the Birth Control Pill allowed middle class women to control when they could have children. The Family Law Act (1975) established the principle of no-fault divorce in Australian law. This means that a court does not consider which partner was at fault in the marriage breakdown. To conclude, women’s rights have undoubtedly changed since 1945. The key areas were politics, employment and social change. After 1945 was the era in which the woman would shine.

Elderly Physical Activity And Exercise Health And Social Care Essay

Elderly Physical Activity And Exercise Health And Social Care Essay According to Foster (1983), well elderly are people over the age of 65 who live in the community out of an institutional setting who continue their life-long patterns of coping with life and living. 2.2.0 Physical activity and Exercise 2.2.1 Definitions of Physical Activity and Exercise Caspersen, Powell and Christenson (1985) defined physical activity as any bodily movements produced by skeletal muscles that result in energy expenditure whereas exercise was defined as planned, structured, repetitive, and purposive bodily movement done to improve or maintain one or more components of physical fitness. In several studies these two terms are used interchangeably. Melillo et al. (1996) stated that when compared to physical activity, exercise is only a component of the overall concept. According to O Brien Cousins (1998) when gerontologists need to measure amounts of physical movements that the elderly may be doing , they tend to use the term physical activity instead of exercise or sport as the latter two may sound like high-exertion and risky activity. 2.2.2 Perceptions of Physical Activity and Exercise Hutton et al. (2009) studied the view of physical activity in older adults. Some consider the involvement in everyday activities such as household chores, leisure pursuits and gardening sufficient for them to meet their physical requirements. On the other hand, others believed that activity needs would be met if one participates in specific tasks other then daily activities. Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) studied the difference in perception of exercise between the less and the more physically capable group of old adults. The less physically capable group defined exercise as maintaining basic abilities and movement. The more physically capable think that exercise should push physical limits and eventually have a goal, although they did not oppose that ageing increases the challenge in activities of daily living. Wilcox, Oberrecht, Bopp, Kammermann and McElmurray (2005) came to similar conclusions after analysing elderly womens attempt in describing the difference between the physical activity and exercise. Physical activity was viewed as broader than exercise. Walcott- McQuigg and Prohaska (2001) distinguished exercise definition between older adults at different stages of readiness to change, used in the Transtheoretical Stages of Change model by Prochaska et al. (1997). Precontemplators viewed exercise as a form of physical exertion such as performing calisthenics and push ups. Participation in formal programs, walking and home exercises were contemplators perceptions of exercise. A broader definition was given by the action and maintenance group as exercise was defined as housework, dancing, general movement and attending social functions. 2.2.3 Recommendations of Exercise The  American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and the  American Heart Association (AHA) released exercise guidelines in 2007 which are an update from the 1995 guidelines by ACSM and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The new recommendation of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise for adults over age 65 identified 30 minutes a day, five days per week as the recommended minimum as opposed to previous one that stated accumulation of 30 minutes or more on most, preferably all days of the week (Haskell et al., 2007). A subjective scale that ranges from 1 (resting) and 10 (an all out effort), is used since moderate intensity cannot be defined in absolute terms. Moderate intensity exercise means working hard at about level-six intensity and being able to carry on a conversation during exercise (ACSM AHA, n.d.). 2.2.4 Perceptions of Exercise Recommendation In 2004, Belza et al. found that older adults understood the ACSM and CDC recommendation. In a similar study done by Wilcox et al. (2005) amongst old women, the participants expressed the idea that moderate-intensity is subjective as it depends on the person. Housework and walking were the two most examples given to illustrate the meaning. Others defined moderate intensity by the level of exertion such as sweating, when the heart start pounding and going beyond comfort level. The word accumulate in the recommendation resulted in uncertainty. When asked to give their general opinion on the recommendation, some said that it was good and realistic and others said it was not. In the same study it has been shown that older adults believe that tailoring recommendations to ones age and physical health is more sensible than just using one-size-fits-all recommendation. 2.3.0 Benefits of Exercise 2.3.1 Documented Benefits of Exercise Juarbe, Turok and Perez-Stable (2002) declared that physical inactivity is one of the most important amendable risk factor for many diseases. WHO (2003) stated that physical activity is important in the prevention of non-communicable chronic diseases such as osteoporosis, type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. The risk of deaths from cardiovascular disease is reduced by moderate levels of physical activity (Bassett et al., 2002, as cited in Belza et al., 2004). Blumenthal et al. (1999) stated that routine physical exercise diminishes mental concerns such as depression and anxiety. Regular exercise is also related to a reduction in the risk of falling (Gregg, Pereira Caspersen, 2000). Cress et al. (2005, as cited by Hardy Grogan, 2009) stated that physical activity helps the elderly to keep up a better quality of life by enabling them to have the opportunity for a more active and independent life. OBrien Cousins (2000, as cited in OBrien Cousins, 2003) explains that elderly see physi cal activity as high risk behaviour, when in actual fact it is chronic lying in bed which decondition the body and increases the risk of health problems. In fact Booth, Bauman and Owen (2002) confirm that the risks associated with a sedentary lifestyle far exceed the risks associated with regular participation in regular physical activity. 2.3.2 Knowledge and Perceptions of the Benefits of Exercise It was found that when elderly lack the confidence in physical activity engagement, that is exercise self efficacy, being knowledgeable about the benefits of exercise will not necessarily result in increased physical activity engagement (Phillips, Schneider Mercer, 2004). Crombie et al. (2004) in their study found out that elderly had high levels of knowledge about the specific health benefits from exercise participation. However, a small number of participants gave the wrong responses or were unsure of the effects. 15% thought that physical activity can lead to long-term hypertension and 13% thought that exercise can weaken bones. 10% did not believe that participation in regular physical activity would not help them to feel better and in remaining independent. Most elderly believed that exercise can help to improve physical fitness, maintain levels of energy, maintain or increase muscle strength and tone, prevent aches and pains, and give them the opportunity to socialise with other people. Wilcox et al. (2005) examined perceptions of exercise benefits and came up with three types namely being weight and appearance, physical health and mental health benefits. Physical health benefits were the most regularly mentioned benefits of exercise in this study. Such examples include heart strengthening, improving arthritis, and decreasing joint stiffness. Some pointed out specific conditions that would benefit from exercise such as diabetes, high blood pressure and cholesterol. Stress reduction, improved alertness, feeling better, feeling good and improved sleep are examples of mental health benefits cited in the study. When asked about the health benefits of exercise in the study of Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001), many seniors mentioned weight loss and improvements in the heart and breathing. However, it was found that it was easier for elderly to appreciate or detect increased leg strength than increased cardiac fitness, even though they were interested in increasing aerobic and cardiovascular capacity. Walcott-McQuigg and Prohaska (2001) discovered the difference in discussion of benefits between elderly at different stages of exercise. Precontemplators and contemplators discussed benefits in terms of disease processes, such as it keeps you from having the hardening of arteries, prevents weight gain and helps the circulation. While those who exercised used terms such as keeping alert, energizing, relief of stress, keeps you in shape and prevents you from getting stiff. Leavy and Aberg (2010) found out that the inactive and moderately active elderly did not believe strongly that being active could add to life span or avoid disease, despite not denying potential health benefits of exercise. 2.4.0 Motivators to Exercise Resnick (1996, as cited in Keiba, 2004) defined motivation as the inner urge that moves or prompts a person to actionmotivation comes from within. 2.4.1.0 Personal Motivators 2.4.1.1 Health and Fitness Newson and Kemps (2007) in their study among 222 elderly participants examined the incidence of exercise motivation from fitness, challenge or health factors. Fitness factors such as wanting to stay in shape and physically fit were marked as very frequent motivating factors in 51.3% and 51.6% of participants respectively. 30% of elderly stated that weight loss has never been a motivating factor to exercise, while 24.5% always exercise to lose weight. Cholesterol reduction and weight loss promote healthy behaviours adoption such as healthy eating and exercise in elderly (Greaney, Lees, Greene Clark, 2004). Improving fitness, keep healthy and joint mobility maintenance were the most reported motives to engage in exercise and sports in participants of the study of Kolt, Driver and Giles (2004). 2.4.1.2 Challenge Beljic (2007) stated that competition can be an efficient motivational tool for elderly to exercise as it was common amongst elderly who constantly compared their blood glucose measurements whilst on a summer camp. Other people can be a source of external motivation through competition, cooperation and comparison (Fogg, 2003, as cited in Albaina, 2009). Factors such as competitivity and skills improvement were mostly marked as rare stimulating factors (Newson Kemps, 2007). 2.4.1.3 Psychological Resnick et al. (2002) explained social cognitive theory of Bandura (1997). They stated that forethought regulates human motivation and action. Outcome expectations and self-efficacy expectations are the basis of the behaviour cognitive control. This means that the person has to believe that a personal action will be followed by a certain outcome, and has to believe in his or her capability to perform such course of action. Exercise engagement has been repeatedly found to be predicted by a strong self belief in accomplishing exercise (Phillips et al., 2004). Resnick (2002) identified factors that had been found to increase self efficacy in older adults. Such factors include role modelling, verbal persuasionf and encouragement, education about exercise and reduction in exercise associated unpleasant sensations. Doing an activity the elderly really enjoy, was found to be a motivating factor to exercise (Melillo et al., 1996). Exercise adherence is influenced by physical activity enjoyment as discussed by Hardy and Grogan (2009). 2.4.1.4 Other motivators Another exercise enabler, time availability, emerged from the various studies including that of Scanlon-Mogel and Roberto (2004). 60% of elderly in the study agreed that role changes in later life such as retirement permit more time available for elderly to participate in exercise. 9.1% of elderly in the study of Cohen-Mansfield, Marx and Guralnik (2003) mentioned increased time availability as a motivating factor. Tolma, Lane, Cornman and Uddin, (2003) indicated that some elderly are motivated to exercise because of their perceived exercise benefits such being able to perform simple activities of daily living, keeping busy and prevent boredom. 2.4.2 Social Motivators Keiba (2004) discussed that social support could encourage individuals to complete necessary unappealing activities because we as individuals are social in nature. This is particularly significant in the older adult who is more reluctant and cautious in attempting certain activities due to fear of decreased physical abilities and mental acuity. Berkman (1995, as cited in Resnick et al., 2002), described different types of social support related to exercise including instrumental, informational, emotional and appraisal types. Such examples of support include accompanying an old adult for a walk, sharing information about exercise, calling a friend to check if they have walked or giving verbal encouragement. According to Hardy and Grogan (2009), social support would increase elderly confidence and reassurance and thus enhance elderly self efficacy in exercise. Family as encouragement was one of the most important themes that emerged from the study by Belza et al. (2004). Family assisted elderly participation in exercise in several ways, such as getting them exercise equipment, providing transport to exercise facilities and by encouraging their participation. Grossman and Stewart (2003, as cited in Bunn et al., 2008) agrees with the latter study as they both cited that decreasing the burden on their family by avoiding sickness was an incentive for some elderly to keep physically active. The motivation of some elderly to stay active and maintain a good quality of life arises from the death and weight problems of their loved ones (Hardy and Grogan, 2009). Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003) found that 14% of participants stated that having someone to exercise with, motivates them to be physically active. Wilcox et al. (2005) supported this finding as they found that elderly physical activity participation increases and becomes more enjoyable when having someone to exercise with. It was reported that elderly discussed the idea of organizing neighbourhood groups to enable increased communication, support, and planning of physical activities. Because of increased social contact and motivation, group exercise encourages some elderly to be physically active according to Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001). 31.3% of African American and 27% of European American in the study of Schuler et al. (2006) stated that they exercise as it is something they can do with their friends. Swinburn, Walter, Arroll, Tilyard and Russell (1998) stated that patients consider a physicians exercise prescription important. Pfeiffer, Clay and Conatser (2001) in the evaluation of the former statement, pointed out that the physician believe in the health benefits of exercise since he or she equates exercise with medication. 6.1% of elderly in Nowak study (2006) mentioned physicians recommendation as a motive to exercise. 2.4.3 Environmental Motivators Exercise facility proximity to the elderlys house promotes exercise engagement in 10% of the participants in the study of Chen, Snyder and Krichbaum (2001). Huston, Evenson, Bors and Gizlice, (2003) studied further this enabler among elderly in America and found that performance in some type of leisure-time physical activity is increased by having access to parks, clubs and fitness centres, in the vicinity of their homes or workplace. Bunn, Dickinson, Barnett-Page, Mcinnes and Horton (2008) identified accessible and appealing information about physical and psychological benefits of exercise as facilitators to exercise. Convenient scheduling of exercise programmes which are tailored to needs or lifestyles enable exercise participation. 2.5.0 Barriers of exercise The Oxford Study Dictionary (1994, pg.50) defined Barrier as something that prevents or controls advance, access, or progress. Hardy and Grogan (2009) stated that real or perceived barriers can significantly obstruct exercise participation. 2.5.1.0 Personal Barriers 2.5.1.1 Health In the study of Juarbe et al. (2002), 28.6% of elderly claimed that the maintenance of a regular physical activity program was impeded by their personal health condition. Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003) reported that the ability to stay physically active can be influenced by a variety of chronic disabling illnesses and a general lack of understanding of the role of physical activity. 53% reported pain or health problems as a limitation to exercise. The elderly had the belief that due to their medical diagnosis they should not and were not allowed to participate in physical activity. 12% were restricted by shortness of breath while 27% were impeded by painful joints (Crombie et al., 2004). The perception of making their pain worse and feeling of tiredness and dizziness restricted physical activity (Belza et al., 2004). 2.5.1.2 Concerns Petersen (2006) argued that for many older people, fear of injury is an impediment to exercise. Elderly may have multiple pathologies and they might be afraid of exacerbating their symptoms such as pain, inducing injury such as a fracture and triggering hypoglycaemia for instance. Overexertion concerns were brought up in the study of Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) such as worrying of death when the heart starts beating too fast. Fear of exercise-associated falls were cited as obstacles to exercise ( Lavizzo-Mourey et al., 2001) as they lead to a decline in confidence, which in turn discourage exercise participation (Bruce, Devine Prince, 2002, as cited in Bunn et al., 2008). Unwillingness to go out at night due to fear of being out alone hinders exercise participation (Crombie et al., 2004; Hardy and Grogan, 2009). 2.5.1.3 Perceptions Wilcox et al. (2005) discussed elderly perception of being too old to exercise and their concern of doing more harm than good. 34.9% of elderly participants in the study of Nowak (2006) and 14.3% in the study of Chen et al. (2001) voiced their idea that their inappropriate age is occluding them from exercising. Zunft et al. (1999, as cited in Leavy Aberg, 2010) in their examination of perceived barriers of the older European adults, found that being too old or not being the sporty type were major barriers in physical activity participation. Relating physical activity to sport and the unawareness of the moderate-intensity activity importance on healthy aging, could rationalize these perceptions, argues Leavy and Aberg (2010). Crombie et al. (2004) pointed out the contribution of lack of positive beliefs of physical activity to sedentary behaviour. Some elderly women voiced their ideas that housework serves as a sufficient exercise and eliminate outside exercise activities requirement (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001). 2.5.1.4 Psychological Nowak (2006) reported that 7.8% of elderly women cited self-consciousness as their reason for physical passivity. Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) in their study assumed that participation in group exercise might be influenced by embarrassment. As reported in the study, an elderly person was concerned that when bending over, the person behind would see the whole rear exposed. Hutton et al. (2009) in their findings of exercise barriers reported feeling of self-consciousness when exercising in the presence of younger people with gym equipment. Dissatisfaction of the body appearance and body mass index, would affect the old adults body esteem and this would influence the level of physical activity (McLaren, Hardy Kuh, 2003, as cited in Hardy Grogan, 2009). McLaren et al. (2003) attributed this negative influence to the effect of body dissatisfaction on the persons sense of well-being and quality of life. Lack of enjoyment is another known barrier to exercise (Wilcox et al., 2005), in fact it impedes 8.3% of elderly participants in the study of Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003). Laziness, lack of motivation and willpower were identified as barriers to exercise (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001; Wilcox et al., 2005). Dergance et al. (2003) in their study about the difference of barriers to leisure time physical activity across cultures found that 19% of Mexican Americans elderly and 45.9% of European Americans elderly stated lack of interest as a barrier. 11.4 % of elderly in the study of Chen et al. (2001) have never considered practicing Tai Chi as they were not interested. 2.5.1.5 Other barriers O Brein Cousins (2003) argues that since older people pack their schedules with voluntary work, care giving roles and probably bingo and other passive games, they genuinely feel they have no spare time left to engage in physical activity. Similarly Schuler al. (2006) reported that among their study population, 12.2% of African American and 10.1% of European American cited lack of time as an exercise barrier. Twenty nine percent of participants in Cheng et al. study in 2007 referred to their difficulty in memorising exercise styles as a barrier to exercise. 22.9% of elderly do not consider practicing Tai Chi as they think they will forget its complicated movements (Chen et al., 2001). The necessity of a walking aid is an impediment to exercise in the elderly (Lavizzo-Mourey et al., 2001). 2.5.2 Social Barriers Petersen (2006), mentioned that physicians occasionally hinder lifestyle changes unintentionally. Patients are given the impression that exercise is not important as physicians do not inquire much about exercise. Rogers et al., (2006) reported low levels of physician counselling on physical activity. Only 34% of a survey participants cited being advised on exercise at their last doctor visit (Wee, McCarthy, Davis Phillips, 1999, as cited in Resnick et al., 2002). ONeil and Reid (1991, as cited in Melillo et al., 1996) found that 16% of elderly did not exercise as their doctor advised them to be careful and not to over-exert themselves. Belza et al., (2004) reported that elderly mentioned family and work obligations which interfere with physical activity routine maintenance. Walcott-McQuigg and Prohaska (2001) indicated that family responsibilities such as caring for grandchildren and older or ailing relatives are restricting the time available for elderly to be physically active. It was also stated that repeated family advice and encouragement can become irritating to the elderly person. Lack of social support from spouse, family and lack of company obstruct exercise participation (Lees, Clark, Nigg Newman, 2005; Wilcox et al., 2005). Ball, Bauman, Leslie and Owen (2001, as cited in Salvador, Florindo, Reis Costa, 2009) stated that walking during leisure time is 31% less likely in individuals who do not have anyone to exercise with. Antikainen et al., (2010) pointed out the elderly family members concern of overexertion and thus resulting in little encouragement to exercise. Negative comments directed to elderly who attempted to exercise discourage physical activity participation (Jancey, Clarke, Howat, Maycock, Lee, 2009). Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) emphasize this barrier as a group of children was a source of intimidation and hazard for certain elderly whilst doing exercise. 2.5.3 Cultural Barriers A barrier that emerged in the study of Wilcox et al. (2005) was that in the past, exercise was not something discussed and stressed on, and they did not have exercise role models. In fact one elderly woman cited that she cannot visualize her mother doing exercise or even speaking about it. Similarly in the study of Nowak (2006) it was found that the most barriers associated with physical inactivity were cultural, originating from the lack of cultivated customs of a physically active lifestyle in the society. Physical labour of past African American jobs led to their perception that additional exercise was not necessary (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001). 2.5.4 Environmental Barriers Difficulty, element of competition and lack of attraction of exercise classes were some of the elderly views that hindered their participation in a class, according to Hutton et al. (2009). Uneasiness was a mentioned concern in a group exercise environment and this pressure is owed to the inability of keeping pace with the class. Wilcox et al. (2005) supported this report by his findings in which elderly discussed the lack of age-appropriate classes and expenses. In the study of Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003), 10.9% of participants reported bad weather as an obstacle to exercise. Several issues related to rurality such as transport unavailability, lack of pavements, lack of safety and facilities were considered as barriers in Wilcox et al. study in 2005. Pfeiffer et al. (2001) supported these findings by their study and attributed the unavailability of sidewalks with the fear of falling and hence makes walking an unappealing exercise. In the study of Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001), unevenness of steps and pavements was cited as another barrier. 16 % of elderly in Cheng et al. study (2007) cited limited public space available to do exercise. Limitation and inappropriateness of space to exercise in the house was found to be a barrier in the study done by Juarbe et al. (2002), usually due to the fact that they live in a confined space with their relatives, shared residential homes or in an apartment. Hardy and Grogan (2009) in their investigation o f the factors influencing engagement in physical activity concluded that the lack of information about exercise and the elderly is limiting their participation. 2.6.0 Variables affecting Impeding and Motivating Factors OBrien Cousins (1995, as cited in OBrien Cousins, 2003) has shown that the elderly involvement in exercise could be significantly affected by the individuals life circumstances such as the age, gender, education and health. 2.6.1 Age Bylina et al. (2006) cited National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion when stating that 28-34% of adults between 65-74 years old and 35-44% of adults aged 75 or older are inactive, not exercising, and engaging in no leisure-time physical activities. Newson and Kemps (2007) compared those older than 75 years to their younger counterparts. They were more likely to exercise to maintain an active lifestyle and medical problems were more likely to prevent them from engaging in exercise. Kolt et al. (2004) found that involvement factors such as getting out of the house and having something to do, and medical motivators were rated more highly by those 75 + than the middle old. The middle-age group reported fitness reasons to be more important than the old-age group. The high ratings of involvement factors may be explained by McMurdo (2000) when stating that loneliness and isolation faced by older adults may be countered by the experience provided by physical activity and exercise. 2.6.2 Level of Education Walsh, Rogot, Pressman, Cauley and Browner (2001) found out that medium or high intensity activities were activities that elderly women with greater than a high school education, were more likely to engage in. Similarly Cheng et al. (2007) reported that exercise participation was lower in less educated people . Highly educated elderly were found to be highly motivated to exercise by social and fitness motivators (Kolt et al, 2004) and an organized exercise program (Cohen-Mansfield, 2003). Involvement reasons were highly rated by those who did not complete high level education (Kolt et al, 2004). 2.6.3 Level of Exercise Time constraints and physical weakness were identified as barriers by the exercisers, while fear of falling and the negative consequences were mentioned by the non-exercisers. Lack of social support is a significant barrier for both. Having a buddy-system in a group exercise would encourage non exercisers to exercise (Lees et al., 2005). Fitness and Challenge factors were reported as frequent motivators by the high-level exercisers when compared to low-level exercisers. Concern, medical factors and lack of facilities and knowledge were rated as frequent barriers to low-level exercisers (Newson Kemps, 2007). Health problems were more likely to be identified as barriers by the precontemplators, although it was a common report among the other groups. Lack of motivation and laziness were identified as barriers by the elderly at every stage of readiness to change (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001). Social interaction was an opportunity which motivated the less active participants in parti cular, to take part in exercise (Leavy and Aberg, 2010). 2.6.4 Marital and Habitual Status Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003) found that having more time available would motivate a lot of married elderly to exercise more frequently. Additionally, it was discussed that since the unmarried would probably be more in need of social interactions, they showed more of an interest in finding someone to accompany them in exercise. It was further discussed that the more socially isolated persons may benefit from social forms of exercise as group exercise would motivate them to exercise. 2.7 Conclusion Elderly persons have different perception of exercise definition, recommendation and benefits. A vast range of motivators and barriers were found to encourage or impede elderly participation in exercise. The perceptions, barriers and motivators were also found to differ with different elderly background characteristics and level of exercise.

Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families

Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families Introduction Child abuse within Black African families is an important topic which has been given extensive attention in British social work research and literature to date. However, only a limited research on child abuse in African families have really considered the impact of socio-economic factors on social work interventions since the inception of the Children Act 1989 (England and Wales). Now the question is why is the issue of socio-economic status of West African families living in the UK an important factor to consider in social work intervention in child abuse cases? My aim in addressing this topic is that research works and literature show that Black children and their families are more likely than whites to be subjected to unnecessary child abuse interventions by social work agencies and other professionals (Bernard Gupta, 2006). Recent research show that in all groups, black children were over-represented on the child protection register under the category of poor parenting behaviour leading to all forms of abuse compared to white children (Bernard Gupta, 2006). This may also be seen within the context of the pathologization of Black families which, incorporates the view that black people, their socio-economic lifestyles are inherently problematic and need correcting (Singh 2006, p. 19) and therefore social workers may intervene unnecessarily in such families. Social workers on the contrary may hesitate to intervene with Black families due to being unsure whether certain parenting behaviours resulting from low socio-economic status are really an abuse or not. The potential consequences of such approach for Black families will be either that the children and their families will be unnecessarily investigated under the child protection system and may be subject to court orders, admitted to local authority care, and/or adopted, or that there will not be appropriate intervention by social workers for black children at risk of significant harm, and therefore children may continue to be harmed or even die. This is evident in recent years, where the vulnerability of some black African children in Britain has been highlighted by the tragic deaths of two African children: Victoria Climbià © (Laming, 2003) and the young boy known as Adam, whose torso was found floating in the River Thames (Sale, 2005). Also more recently, media reports of possible ‘ritual abuse of African children in Britain were fuelled by the criminal prosecution in relation to Child ‘B, who was physically abused because it was believed she was a ‘kindoki a victim of witchcraft possessed by the devil (Tendler and Woolcock, 2005; Thompson, 2005). In a broader context Socio-economic status is defined as: ‘a composite measure that typically incorporate economic status, which is measured by income; social status, measured by education; and work status, measured by occupation (Dulton Levine, 1989, p.30). The three indicators are interrelated but not fully overlapping variables. In this context socio-economic status is considered in terms of economic status, defined as low income or poverty. The difficulties for majority of West African Black families who are mainly asylum seekers from poverty-stricken and war-torn countries now living in the UK are not confined only to how they may be viewed by social workers involved in child care but significantly by their child-rearing differences arising from their socio-economic backgrounds (Beranard Gupta 2006). The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (Department of Health, 2000) based on the ecological approach places a requirement on social workers to consider families histories, cultural and socio-economic status. Therefore the low socio-economic status of many West African families living in the UK is one big challenge for social work professionals working to safeguard and protect these children from abuse from parents responsible for their care. Therefore key information from the literature will be discussed to explore a number of issues that will help social work professionals to deploy the most appropriate and effective method of social work interventions in child abuse cases with West African families in poverty so as to protect these children from all forms of abuse. Moreover, difficulties in social work intervention in child abuse cases may arise, as explained by Korbin (2004), because the process of assessing a child abuse case is complex and parent al behaviours and child outcomes may not be the same in different socio-economic settings. Henceforth, child abuse within West African families can risk reproducing stereotypes of this ethnic minority as ‘deficient, thus fostering pathological viewpoint of African family relationships (Platt, 2005). This raises the question of how can social work practices direct attention to pertinent socio-economic issues framing the experiences of West African children at risk of significant harm, yet not to reproduce ideas of all West African families as deficient. These complex circumstances make social work intervention a major challenge in recent times and therefore, calls for a new perspective in terms of skills, knowledge and conceptual tools to distinguish between the styles of parenting that differ from those of the majority culture, but at the same time safeguarding and protecting children from significant harm. The dissertation has built its theoretical framework on social work theory, policy and practice and will use key conceptual framework from the social-contextual approaches to intervention. The methodology for this work was mainly qualitative and the literature search has been obtained from primary and secondary sources. The dissertation will lay out various issues regarding the social work intervention processes used for West African families with low socio-economic status. The first chapter provides literature on black African children and the child protection system. Chapter two provides a discussion on the increased complexity of social work intervention in child abuse cases involving West African families with low socio-economic status. It also analyse how socio-economic factors cultivate a particular parenting behaviours that impact on social work interventions and thus, bringing West African children living in the UK into the child protection arena. Then chapter three draws on legislations and policies regulating social work practices in the UK. It examines social work practices required to provide competent social work interventions in child abuse cases among West African families and at the same time would not compromise children safety and protection. Chapter four critically analyse the methods of interventions available to social workers to use in effecting positive change in black African community. Finally chapter five discusses the implicat ions of social work intervention made by social work professionals among West African families of low socio-economic status. Chapter one Black African Children And Child Protection Systems The Prevalence Of Black Children On Child Protection Systems There are a number of recent studies on Black families and the child protection system which suggest that these families are disproportionately represented at different levels in the child protection system. Gibbons et al (2005) study looked at the operation of the child protection system in eight local authorities in Britain. A part of their study looked at the racial background of the referred families and they found that Black families were over-represented compared with White families on referrals involving physical injury (58% vs. 42%). Black families were also more often referred for using an implement to inflict the physical injury. The researchers argue that this finding illustrates parenting differences in child-rearing, and the difficulty of deciding what forms of physical punishments are ‘acceptable in Britain. They continued to report that the consequences of the injuries inflicted on the Black children were no more likely to be long-lasting, but what seemed unaccep table for the people who referred these children to social services was the form the punishment took. This research study raises an interesting point about child-rearing and parenting differences. Is it the case that Black families, as part of their culture of child-rearing stemming from their poverty status, use physical punishment more as a means of discipline than White families? A recent study by Ellis (2007) found that some West African parents adopted a harsh disciplinary approach with their children as they believe there is no other alternative way of instilling discipline in their children. But the vast people of the majority ethnic community could use options like keeping playing toys away from the children or not taking the children on a holiday and/or depriving them of visiting their friends as a form of instilling disciplining in the children. Ellis (2007) also noted that these punishments are likely to be meted out in a fairly public situation and, though they may be painful, they are unlikely to get out of hand and go beyond what is culturally acceptable. This would appear to support Gibbon et al (2005) findings that the consequences of the injuries to the Black children in their study were not likely to be long-lasting. Another research study by Gibbon Wilding (2005) looked at three local authorities, two of which had significant populations of Black families. One of their findings indicate that referrals around inadequate supervision of children in the two authorities show that a significant number of children referrals came from Black families with low income status than black families with medium/high income status. It could be argued that families with low income status have to strive hard to make ends means by engaging in two or more menial jobs to financially sustain the family. As a result children are inadequately supervised by the very people who are responsible for their care. Considering this kind of socio-economic circumstances, Gibbon Wilding (2005) question whether such referrals should be considered within the child protection framework, or whether it would be better to provide welfare interventions and services for such families under the children in need Act (The Children Act 1989 , England and Wales, S.17). This finding has a number of possible implications for West African children and their families, it may mean that they will remain in the child protection system for longer whilst the necessary services are identified and implemented; or perhaps that assessments and intervention services are provided but are not socio-economically sensitive, and therefore only serve to disadvantage families further. Furthermore, as part of their study, they found that proportionately more Black children were subject to child abuse investigations than White children. They found that of all the children in their study sample on the register, 60% were Black. A possible reason for this over-representation was that social work professionals working with the families had no or little understanding of the socio-economic backgrounds of these black African families (Barn et al. 2007). The researchers also found that White social workers and practitioners emphasized their lack of socio-economic awareness as a weakness when working with Black families, whilst Black social workers and practitioners argued that poverty and ethnicity were not adequately taken into account due to euro-centric child protection procedures. One might speculate whether the parents/guardians of these children refuse to cooperate with social service agencies or whether these agencies are taking a heavy-handed approach, perhaps have pathological approach towards such families. Further data shows that the number of African children in need in the sample week in 2005 is 8,000 (Department for Education and Skills, 2006a). This figure accounts for 3 per cent of the overall total, which is an over-representation inferring from the 2001 census where African children makes up 1.4 per cent of the population. A number of studies indicate that most families of children in need, regardless of ethnicity, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of poverty (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). Many West African children in need will not be drawn into the child protection system, if they are made to receive voluntary welfare support services. Thoburn et al.s (2005) review of the research into the nature and outcomes of child welfare services for black children concluded that African children are almost twice as likely to be looked after than the white majority children in the population as a whole, which then suggest, that some of these children will be accommoda ted under section 20 of the 1989 Children Act, by virtue of being raised by families of low socio-economic status. Beranard and Gupta (2006) found that in relation to the reasons for African children being involved in the child protection system, no official national data are collected on ethnicity and reasons for referral or registration on the child protection register (Department for Education and Skills, 2006b). Research data paint a complex and often contradictory picture and once again the information is often aggregated with data on other minority ethnic children. Brophy et al.s (2003) study, which separated data on different minority ethnic families, highlights an increase complexity in the cases involving African children and found that many involved ‘multiple concerns and allegations about parental behaviour. Arguably, there are a number of contributory factors which could be perceived as important in understanding the involvement of West African families with social work agencies and the resultant over-representation of their children in public care and in the child protection system. Broadly speaking, these range from poverty and social exclusion, to child abuse and neglect, poor social work assessments and intervention, and overt and covert racism. The Government Policies And Initiatives The Commission for Racial Equalitys submission to the DFES/HM Treasury Joint Policy Review on children and young people identifies a number of shortcomings of some government policy initiatives such as Sure Start (CRE, 2006). As is the case with many other government policy initiatives, it is expected that Sure Start Centres will be responsive to black minority ethnic needs and concerns. The commitment of such policies is questioned when there is ‘no race equality impact assessment of the Childcare Act 2006 and only a brief mention of black ethnic minority families in the ten-year childcare strategy (CRE, 2006, p. 10). Whilst black ethnic monitoring of children in care, in need and on the child protection register now takes place at regional and national levels, there is little evidence that such information is utilized for policy and planning purposes to effect positive change. It is evident that race and welfare policy has been constrained by parochial perspectives which have tended to focus on how to deal with those in the system. For example, the policy and practice debate on ethnicity and substitute family placements diverts attention from preventive services which could help to obviate the admission of minority children into care in the first place. Similarly, preventive methods of intervention with West African families, such as Family Group Conferences, and systemic practice, as well as particular approaches such as kinship care, are less well developed (Broad and Skinner, 2005; Farmer and Moyers, 2005). Chapter Two Poverty, West African Families And Child Proctection Poverty And Child Protection All families and children for whom social work intervention is likely to be needed are also more than most subject to a range of social and economic problems and barriers. One major factor is chronic poverty which is often associated with unemployment or immigration, ethnic minority, or a single parent family. Poverty often goes hand in hand with other disadvantages and obstacles such as poor educational and employment opportunities, poor parenting, and allegations of child abuse cases. Many West African families and children problems are exacerbated by the interaction between socio-economic factors and their individual impairments and family situations. Unemployment levels are very high among West African families, who are also subject to stigma and prejudice on the part of the community. West African families living in the UK without jobs and no access to benefit and/or dependent on benefits find it hard to access credit. Poor children growing up in single-parent families suffer se rious parental disadvantage, which in turn result into social work interventions. Poverty as we all know is not even-handed. The chances of experiencing poverty are far higher with people from West Africa than with white people (Amin Oppenheim 2002). Institutional oppression is suffered by many West African people in many areas including housing ( Amin Oppenheim 2002), employment ( Chakrabarti et al. 2000), welfare state ( Sadiq-Sangster 2001), education and health which not only means that they are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation, but may also make them more susceptible to social work interventions in terms of child protection. Indeed one may expect Black children to be over-represented in child abuse statistics because their families are more open to surveillance as a result of figuring highly among indices of deprivation (Corby 1993, p.69). The relationship between poverty and child abuse has been broadly established (Thobum et al. 1993; Gibbons et al. 2005). Arguments favour the impact of poverty on child abuse shows an increasing number of child protection allegations referred into the system, and second was the proportion of cases leading to social work interventions and/or other forms of services. Numbers entering the system were hard to quantify. Whilst they showed an increase in registrations up to 1991 (Gibbons et al., 1995), no national records had been kept about referrals, and differences in recording practices and interpretation were widespread. Regarding proportional figures, the discussion was on slightly safer ground. A key finding from the 2005 research studies show that a large number of children were entered into the child protection system compared with those who were subject to social welfare procedures. Of a total number of child protection referrals, around 75 per cent were investigated and intervened, 25 per cent were subject to a child protection conference and only 15 per cent had their names placed on the child pr otection register as a result (Gibbons et al., 2005). Consequently, it was argued that the child protection ‘net was picking up too many cases inappropriately. This finding undermines the government aim of keeping children with families and reducing the number of children that enter the child protection register. On the contrast, it is important to consider the effectiveness of the child protection system. Broadly, it seemed to be achieving as much as could be expected in terms of the limited aim of preventing further abuse to identifiable children. There are, however, identifiable shortcomings of the child protection system. Social work interventions appeared to have quite traumatic effects on families (Department of Health, 1995), often generating anxiety and uncertainty for either children or parents, or both (Farmer and Owen, 2005). Poverty And Child Welfare Services Research shows that the poverty experienced by many West African families may be better met through preventative measures rather than child protection ones. Yet despite section 17 of the Children Act 1989, which places a duty on the local authority social workers to provide support for children in need, many social services children and family teams, barely have sufficient resources to meet their duties under child welfare and children looked after. However, unless these issues are tackled, West African families who need support for their children will receive it only when there is an issue of child protection. Furthermore, using socio-economic variables such as poverty as a predictor of high-risk families (Greenland 1997) fails to acknowledge the part prejudice plays for Black people. Consequently, these indicators of child abuse are seen as failings of the individual rather than the product of social inequality (Jones 2004). A number of studies have indicated that most West African families, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of material and emotional adversity (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). For instance West African families cannot take their children on a holiday trip or meet their wishes and wants. Brophy et al.s (2003) study suggests that immigration and asylum issues, combined with financial problems, are likely to be reasons for the increased complexity for social work professionals assessing and intervening child abuse cases involving West African children. The child protection system that exists in Britain will be unfamiliar to many West African families, especially those who recently arrived, as similar state systems do not exist in most West African countries, particularly where socio-economic factors overshadow intra-familial child maltreatment and intervention into child abuse and neglect (Lachman et al., 2002; Pierce and Bozalek, 2004). Brophy et al.s (2003) study conclud es that many black West African parents saw social work assessment and intervention in child welfare cases as a complete anathema and distrust, especially where parents migrate from countries in political turmoil and where there is no existence of child welfare services. There is also concern about the quality of social workers interventions in child abuse cases. For example, it is shown that investigations of alleged child abuse tended to focus on risk assessment rather than assessment leading to social work interventions of the needs of the whole child (Thoburn et al., 2007). In particular, social workers carrying out an investigation might not pick up problems emanating from poverty or social deprivation (Farmer and Owen, 2005). However, at least superficially, social work interventions appear to contrast with section 17 responses, where research reveals high levels of satisfaction amongst parents and children receiving social work services (Colton et al., 1995; Tunstill and Aldg ate, 2000). Thus, if allegations were minor, it was suggested that the costs to families were unacceptably high, and it was by no means clear that interventions, as a social work response, was better or worse than other options. Engaging in social welfare policy addresses low socio-economic status through intervention aimed at promoting social change, while intervention aimed at the poor family or individual addresses poverty at the micro level by helping those in need to develop better coping strategies. The argument that the social work mission of pursuing social change and dealing with poverty cannot be attained by micro practice has been the source of strong and recurrent criticism against the dominance of micro practice in social work although Hugman (2008) questions the truism of this argument (Asquith et al 2005). The relationship between the mission of social work with regard to poverty and the type of social work practised poses a dilemma for social workers. A particular challenge for social work services is how to work to the required standards regarding thresholds for assessment and intervention with West African families with low socio-economic background and to safeguard and promote childrens we lfare (Platt, 2005). Poverty And Parenting Practices The literature suggest that poverty among black West African families affect the life chances of many African children and the capacity of their parents to provide adequate care and this should be considered in social work assessment and interventions involving child abuse cases. The relationship between values and child up bringing patterns illuminates the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours (Shor, 2000). Shor (2000) suggests that parents from low social class differ in terms of the values they uphold for their children and this impact on child upbringing. It is also found that there is correlation between black African mothers with low income status using a more authoritarian approach of caring for children than mothers with high income status. Shors (2000) underpin the relationship between values and child-bearing patterns which illuminate the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours. He suggests that parents from divers e social class differ in terms of what characteristics they value most for their children and that these differences in value contribute to differences in parenting behaviour. This variation in child-rearing attitudes based on socio-economic variables was underpinned by Shaefer and Edgerton (1995). In order to develop a sensitive knowledge of child abuse, not only across culture but also across socio-economic contexts, it is possible to draw upon knowledge from studies that look at the parenting patterns of black parents with low income. In families it is the children to whom social workers owe the greater duty of care. Children can be clear about what they need. There may be tensions between childrens needs and wishes, parents needs and wishes, the views and wishes of the wider family, of the community, other professionals, and with the requirements of the law, regulation and procedure. Even where the decision is to remove a child from a family the way social workers conduct their business can make a difference. Thus social work has to respond to parental needs- financial and social, for the sake of the children, but may need to abandon them to maintain the primacy of the childs welfare. The consequences of getting the balance wrong in either direction expose both black African children and parents to suffering and pain. Sometimes the nature of the socio-economic issue will demand decisions that appear to undermine that commitment of not putting children at risk of significant harm. Social workers have to take the decision and maintain the commitment. The Government Regulatory Policies And Poverty By the 21st century, there was a growing view that many West African children who were subjects of section 47 investigations were also eligible for services as children in need (section 17 of the 1989 Children Act). Often, such children did not receive these welfare services because of the apparent incident driven focus of child protection services. One way forward in these circumstances was to encourage local authority social work teams to conduct initial assessments, rather than child protection investigations, in borderline cases, with a view to finding less intrusive forms of social work intervention practice that address the wider developmental needs of the child. Procedures supporting such changes were first introduced by local authorities independently, and were subsequently incorporated into government guidance in England, with the expectation that all referrals of children would first be offered an initial assessment except in emergency cases or where it is suspected that a crime has been committed (Department of Health, 1999). Concurrently, a detailed framework was issued regarding the assessment of all children in need (Department of Health, 2000). The now familiar Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families was based on an ecological model of assessment, and included supporting pro formas covering the initial assessment period. Platt, (2000) in his study on refocusing initiative attracted a degree of criticism. For many health and social work professionals, there was concern that serious child protection issues might not receive an adequate response if handled outside child protection procedures (Calder and Hackett, 2003). A key factor here would be whether cases can be switched successfully from family support back into child protection—an issue that has given cause for concern over a number of years (Laming, 2003). Parton (1996) criticized the recommendations of Messages from Research because they ignored the basic socio-economic reality for many families. Furthermore, cu rrent social expectations may support a formal response to allegations of child abuse and neglect. It is thus unreasonable to expect social workers to act alone since to do so runs counter to the dominant view of wider society. The idea that fewer investigations would mean that resources could simply be transferred to family support services is somewhat naive. The resource problems include the provision of social work time, the provision of adequate family support services, and the need to support a period of change and transition. Few would argue that resourcing levels in any of these respects have been adequate (Calder and Hackett, 2003), and the question of resources was sidestepped almost completely by Messages from Research. The difficulties of implementing such changes were highlighted more recently by Cleaver and Walker (2004) in their research on the impact of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. The role of the state in these processes was also examined critically by Spratt and Callan (2004). They argued that reductions in numbers of children on the child protection register have been achieved largely as a result of modern governance and measures to promote compliance with performance targets. Whilst these achievements are laudable, they suggest, they may serve to obscure ‘underlying tensions in the relationship between the state and the family. The idea of refocusing has been affected by complex, often competing pressures since the introduction of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. Arguably, the death of Victoria Climbià © reinforced a ‘child protection orientation, and may have led, in some areas, to a lowering of the child protection threshold (Laming, 2003). The Laming report, furthermore, draws attention to the professional confusions that arise from the distinctions in practice between sections 17 and 47. In circumstances such as this, the role of the social worker in any changing pattern of provision takes on parti cular importance. Chapter Three Social Work Practices History Of Social Work Practice Social work has its roots in the struggle of society to deal with poverty and the resultant problems. Therefore, social work is intricately linked with the idea of charity work; but must be understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions (www.globalvision.org. Retrieved on 14/04/2009). The term social work intervention usually describes work undertaken with individuals, families, groups and communities. In this context the term to cover the use of social work knowledge and skills when using it within a social care organisation to facilitate the provision of services and practice consistent with the Codes of Practice and with standards of service and practice, and to promote the social inclusion and life opportunities of people using services. Successful social work includes the capacity to work effectively within organisations and across organisational boundaries. In the vast majority of instances social work intervention is a collective activity not an individual activity whether as social worker employee or an independent social worker. The most common form of methods of social work intervention is Individual or family casework. Here social work is the intervention. It supports the individual or family to identify, and use, their own and their social networks exp erience and expertise as a resource for problems or difficulties may have resulte Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families Introduction Child abuse within Black African families is an important topic which has been given extensive attention in British social work research and literature to date. However, only a limited research on child abuse in African families have really considered the impact of socio-economic factors on social work interventions since the inception of the Children Act 1989 (England and Wales). Now the question is why is the issue of socio-economic status of West African families living in the UK an important factor to consider in social work intervention in child abuse cases? My aim in addressing this topic is that research works and literature show that Black children and their families are more likely than whites to be subjected to unnecessary child abuse interventions by social work agencies and other professionals (Bernard Gupta, 2006). Recent research show that in all groups, black children were over-represented on the child protection register under the category of poor parenting behaviour leading to all forms of abuse compared to white children (Bernard Gupta, 2006). This may also be seen within the context of the pathologization of Black families which, incorporates the view that black people, their socio-economic lifestyles are inherently problematic and need correcting (Singh 2006, p. 19) and therefore social workers may intervene unnecessarily in such families. Social workers on the contrary may hesitate to intervene with Black families due to being unsure whether certain parenting behaviours resulting from low socio-economic status are really an abuse or not. The potential consequences of such approach for Black families will be either that the children and their families will be unnecessarily investigated under the child protection system and may be subject to court orders, admitted to local authority care, and/or adopted, or that there will not be appropriate intervention by social workers for black children at risk of significant harm, and therefore children may continue to be harmed or even die. This is evident in recent years, where the vulnerability of some black African children in Britain has been highlighted by the tragic deaths of two African children: Victoria Climbià © (Laming, 2003) and the young boy known as Adam, whose torso was found floating in the River Thames (Sale, 2005). Also more recently, media reports of possible ‘ritual abuse of African children in Britain were fuelled by the criminal prosecution in relation to Child ‘B, who was physically abused because it was believed she was a ‘kindoki a victim of witchcraft possessed by the devil (Tendler and Woolcock, 2005; Thompson, 2005). In a broader context Socio-economic status is defined as: ‘a composite measure that typically incorporate economic status, which is measured by income; social status, measured by education; and work status, measured by occupation (Dulton Levine, 1989, p.30). The three indicators are interrelated but not fully overlapping variables. In this context socio-economic status is considered in terms of economic status, defined as low income or poverty. The difficulties for majority of West African Black families who are mainly asylum seekers from poverty-stricken and war-torn countries now living in the UK are not confined only to how they may be viewed by social workers involved in child care but significantly by their child-rearing differences arising from their socio-economic backgrounds (Beranard Gupta 2006). The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (Department of Health, 2000) based on the ecological approach places a requirement on social workers to consider families histories, cultural and socio-economic status. Therefore the low socio-economic status of many West African families living in the UK is one big challenge for social work professionals working to safeguard and protect these children from abuse from parents responsible for their care. Therefore key information from the literature will be discussed to explore a number of issues that will help social work professionals to deploy the most appropriate and effective method of social work interventions in child abuse cases with West African families in poverty so as to protect these children from all forms of abuse. Moreover, difficulties in social work intervention in child abuse cases may arise, as explained by Korbin (2004), because the process of assessing a child abuse case is complex and parent al behaviours and child outcomes may not be the same in different socio-economic settings. Henceforth, child abuse within West African families can risk reproducing stereotypes of this ethnic minority as ‘deficient, thus fostering pathological viewpoint of African family relationships (Platt, 2005). This raises the question of how can social work practices direct attention to pertinent socio-economic issues framing the experiences of West African children at risk of significant harm, yet not to reproduce ideas of all West African families as deficient. These complex circumstances make social work intervention a major challenge in recent times and therefore, calls for a new perspective in terms of skills, knowledge and conceptual tools to distinguish between the styles of parenting that differ from those of the majority culture, but at the same time safeguarding and protecting children from significant harm. The dissertation has built its theoretical framework on social work theory, policy and practice and will use key conceptual framework from the social-contextual approaches to intervention. The methodology for this work was mainly qualitative and the literature search has been obtained from primary and secondary sources. The dissertation will lay out various issues regarding the social work intervention processes used for West African families with low socio-economic status. The first chapter provides literature on black African children and the child protection system. Chapter two provides a discussion on the increased complexity of social work intervention in child abuse cases involving West African families with low socio-economic status. It also analyse how socio-economic factors cultivate a particular parenting behaviours that impact on social work interventions and thus, bringing West African children living in the UK into the child protection arena. Then chapter three draws on legislations and policies regulating social work practices in the UK. It examines social work practices required to provide competent social work interventions in child abuse cases among West African families and at the same time would not compromise children safety and protection. Chapter four critically analyse the methods of interventions available to social workers to use in effecting positive change in black African community. Finally chapter five discusses the implicat ions of social work intervention made by social work professionals among West African families of low socio-economic status. Chapter one Black African Children And Child Protection Systems The Prevalence Of Black Children On Child Protection Systems There are a number of recent studies on Black families and the child protection system which suggest that these families are disproportionately represented at different levels in the child protection system. Gibbons et al (2005) study looked at the operation of the child protection system in eight local authorities in Britain. A part of their study looked at the racial background of the referred families and they found that Black families were over-represented compared with White families on referrals involving physical injury (58% vs. 42%). Black families were also more often referred for using an implement to inflict the physical injury. The researchers argue that this finding illustrates parenting differences in child-rearing, and the difficulty of deciding what forms of physical punishments are ‘acceptable in Britain. They continued to report that the consequences of the injuries inflicted on the Black children were no more likely to be long-lasting, but what seemed unaccep table for the people who referred these children to social services was the form the punishment took. This research study raises an interesting point about child-rearing and parenting differences. Is it the case that Black families, as part of their culture of child-rearing stemming from their poverty status, use physical punishment more as a means of discipline than White families? A recent study by Ellis (2007) found that some West African parents adopted a harsh disciplinary approach with their children as they believe there is no other alternative way of instilling discipline in their children. But the vast people of the majority ethnic community could use options like keeping playing toys away from the children or not taking the children on a holiday and/or depriving them of visiting their friends as a form of instilling disciplining in the children. Ellis (2007) also noted that these punishments are likely to be meted out in a fairly public situation and, though they may be painful, they are unlikely to get out of hand and go beyond what is culturally acceptable. This would appear to support Gibbon et al (2005) findings that the consequences of the injuries to the Black children in their study were not likely to be long-lasting. Another research study by Gibbon Wilding (2005) looked at three local authorities, two of which had significant populations of Black families. One of their findings indicate that referrals around inadequate supervision of children in the two authorities show that a significant number of children referrals came from Black families with low income status than black families with medium/high income status. It could be argued that families with low income status have to strive hard to make ends means by engaging in two or more menial jobs to financially sustain the family. As a result children are inadequately supervised by the very people who are responsible for their care. Considering this kind of socio-economic circumstances, Gibbon Wilding (2005) question whether such referrals should be considered within the child protection framework, or whether it would be better to provide welfare interventions and services for such families under the children in need Act (The Children Act 1989 , England and Wales, S.17). This finding has a number of possible implications for West African children and their families, it may mean that they will remain in the child protection system for longer whilst the necessary services are identified and implemented; or perhaps that assessments and intervention services are provided but are not socio-economically sensitive, and therefore only serve to disadvantage families further. Furthermore, as part of their study, they found that proportionately more Black children were subject to child abuse investigations than White children. They found that of all the children in their study sample on the register, 60% were Black. A possible reason for this over-representation was that social work professionals working with the families had no or little understanding of the socio-economic backgrounds of these black African families (Barn et al. 2007). The researchers also found that White social workers and practitioners emphasized their lack of socio-economic awareness as a weakness when working with Black families, whilst Black social workers and practitioners argued that poverty and ethnicity were not adequately taken into account due to euro-centric child protection procedures. One might speculate whether the parents/guardians of these children refuse to cooperate with social service agencies or whether these agencies are taking a heavy-handed approach, perhaps have pathological approach towards such families. Further data shows that the number of African children in need in the sample week in 2005 is 8,000 (Department for Education and Skills, 2006a). This figure accounts for 3 per cent of the overall total, which is an over-representation inferring from the 2001 census where African children makes up 1.4 per cent of the population. A number of studies indicate that most families of children in need, regardless of ethnicity, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of poverty (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). Many West African children in need will not be drawn into the child protection system, if they are made to receive voluntary welfare support services. Thoburn et al.s (2005) review of the research into the nature and outcomes of child welfare services for black children concluded that African children are almost twice as likely to be looked after than the white majority children in the population as a whole, which then suggest, that some of these children will be accommoda ted under section 20 of the 1989 Children Act, by virtue of being raised by families of low socio-economic status. Beranard and Gupta (2006) found that in relation to the reasons for African children being involved in the child protection system, no official national data are collected on ethnicity and reasons for referral or registration on the child protection register (Department for Education and Skills, 2006b). Research data paint a complex and often contradictory picture and once again the information is often aggregated with data on other minority ethnic children. Brophy et al.s (2003) study, which separated data on different minority ethnic families, highlights an increase complexity in the cases involving African children and found that many involved ‘multiple concerns and allegations about parental behaviour. Arguably, there are a number of contributory factors which could be perceived as important in understanding the involvement of West African families with social work agencies and the resultant over-representation of their children in public care and in the child protection system. Broadly speaking, these range from poverty and social exclusion, to child abuse and neglect, poor social work assessments and intervention, and overt and covert racism. The Government Policies And Initiatives The Commission for Racial Equalitys submission to the DFES/HM Treasury Joint Policy Review on children and young people identifies a number of shortcomings of some government policy initiatives such as Sure Start (CRE, 2006). As is the case with many other government policy initiatives, it is expected that Sure Start Centres will be responsive to black minority ethnic needs and concerns. The commitment of such policies is questioned when there is ‘no race equality impact assessment of the Childcare Act 2006 and only a brief mention of black ethnic minority families in the ten-year childcare strategy (CRE, 2006, p. 10). Whilst black ethnic monitoring of children in care, in need and on the child protection register now takes place at regional and national levels, there is little evidence that such information is utilized for policy and planning purposes to effect positive change. It is evident that race and welfare policy has been constrained by parochial perspectives which have tended to focus on how to deal with those in the system. For example, the policy and practice debate on ethnicity and substitute family placements diverts attention from preventive services which could help to obviate the admission of minority children into care in the first place. Similarly, preventive methods of intervention with West African families, such as Family Group Conferences, and systemic practice, as well as particular approaches such as kinship care, are less well developed (Broad and Skinner, 2005; Farmer and Moyers, 2005). Chapter Two Poverty, West African Families And Child Proctection Poverty And Child Protection All families and children for whom social work intervention is likely to be needed are also more than most subject to a range of social and economic problems and barriers. One major factor is chronic poverty which is often associated with unemployment or immigration, ethnic minority, or a single parent family. Poverty often goes hand in hand with other disadvantages and obstacles such as poor educational and employment opportunities, poor parenting, and allegations of child abuse cases. Many West African families and children problems are exacerbated by the interaction between socio-economic factors and their individual impairments and family situations. Unemployment levels are very high among West African families, who are also subject to stigma and prejudice on the part of the community. West African families living in the UK without jobs and no access to benefit and/or dependent on benefits find it hard to access credit. Poor children growing up in single-parent families suffer se rious parental disadvantage, which in turn result into social work interventions. Poverty as we all know is not even-handed. The chances of experiencing poverty are far higher with people from West Africa than with white people (Amin Oppenheim 2002). Institutional oppression is suffered by many West African people in many areas including housing ( Amin Oppenheim 2002), employment ( Chakrabarti et al. 2000), welfare state ( Sadiq-Sangster 2001), education and health which not only means that they are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation, but may also make them more susceptible to social work interventions in terms of child protection. Indeed one may expect Black children to be over-represented in child abuse statistics because their families are more open to surveillance as a result of figuring highly among indices of deprivation (Corby 1993, p.69). The relationship between poverty and child abuse has been broadly established (Thobum et al. 1993; Gibbons et al. 2005). Arguments favour the impact of poverty on child abuse shows an increasing number of child protection allegations referred into the system, and second was the proportion of cases leading to social work interventions and/or other forms of services. Numbers entering the system were hard to quantify. Whilst they showed an increase in registrations up to 1991 (Gibbons et al., 1995), no national records had been kept about referrals, and differences in recording practices and interpretation were widespread. Regarding proportional figures, the discussion was on slightly safer ground. A key finding from the 2005 research studies show that a large number of children were entered into the child protection system compared with those who were subject to social welfare procedures. Of a total number of child protection referrals, around 75 per cent were investigated and intervened, 25 per cent were subject to a child protection conference and only 15 per cent had their names placed on the child pr otection register as a result (Gibbons et al., 2005). Consequently, it was argued that the child protection ‘net was picking up too many cases inappropriately. This finding undermines the government aim of keeping children with families and reducing the number of children that enter the child protection register. On the contrast, it is important to consider the effectiveness of the child protection system. Broadly, it seemed to be achieving as much as could be expected in terms of the limited aim of preventing further abuse to identifiable children. There are, however, identifiable shortcomings of the child protection system. Social work interventions appeared to have quite traumatic effects on families (Department of Health, 1995), often generating anxiety and uncertainty for either children or parents, or both (Farmer and Owen, 2005). Poverty And Child Welfare Services Research shows that the poverty experienced by many West African families may be better met through preventative measures rather than child protection ones. Yet despite section 17 of the Children Act 1989, which places a duty on the local authority social workers to provide support for children in need, many social services children and family teams, barely have sufficient resources to meet their duties under child welfare and children looked after. However, unless these issues are tackled, West African families who need support for their children will receive it only when there is an issue of child protection. Furthermore, using socio-economic variables such as poverty as a predictor of high-risk families (Greenland 1997) fails to acknowledge the part prejudice plays for Black people. Consequently, these indicators of child abuse are seen as failings of the individual rather than the product of social inequality (Jones 2004). A number of studies have indicated that most West African families, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of material and emotional adversity (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). For instance West African families cannot take their children on a holiday trip or meet their wishes and wants. Brophy et al.s (2003) study suggests that immigration and asylum issues, combined with financial problems, are likely to be reasons for the increased complexity for social work professionals assessing and intervening child abuse cases involving West African children. The child protection system that exists in Britain will be unfamiliar to many West African families, especially those who recently arrived, as similar state systems do not exist in most West African countries, particularly where socio-economic factors overshadow intra-familial child maltreatment and intervention into child abuse and neglect (Lachman et al., 2002; Pierce and Bozalek, 2004). Brophy et al.s (2003) study conclud es that many black West African parents saw social work assessment and intervention in child welfare cases as a complete anathema and distrust, especially where parents migrate from countries in political turmoil and where there is no existence of child welfare services. There is also concern about the quality of social workers interventions in child abuse cases. For example, it is shown that investigations of alleged child abuse tended to focus on risk assessment rather than assessment leading to social work interventions of the needs of the whole child (Thoburn et al., 2007). In particular, social workers carrying out an investigation might not pick up problems emanating from poverty or social deprivation (Farmer and Owen, 2005). However, at least superficially, social work interventions appear to contrast with section 17 responses, where research reveals high levels of satisfaction amongst parents and children receiving social work services (Colton et al., 1995; Tunstill and Aldg ate, 2000). Thus, if allegations were minor, it was suggested that the costs to families were unacceptably high, and it was by no means clear that interventions, as a social work response, was better or worse than other options. Engaging in social welfare policy addresses low socio-economic status through intervention aimed at promoting social change, while intervention aimed at the poor family or individual addresses poverty at the micro level by helping those in need to develop better coping strategies. The argument that the social work mission of pursuing social change and dealing with poverty cannot be attained by micro practice has been the source of strong and recurrent criticism against the dominance of micro practice in social work although Hugman (2008) questions the truism of this argument (Asquith et al 2005). The relationship between the mission of social work with regard to poverty and the type of social work practised poses a dilemma for social workers. A particular challenge for social work services is how to work to the required standards regarding thresholds for assessment and intervention with West African families with low socio-economic background and to safeguard and promote childrens we lfare (Platt, 2005). Poverty And Parenting Practices The literature suggest that poverty among black West African families affect the life chances of many African children and the capacity of their parents to provide adequate care and this should be considered in social work assessment and interventions involving child abuse cases. The relationship between values and child up bringing patterns illuminates the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours (Shor, 2000). Shor (2000) suggests that parents from low social class differ in terms of the values they uphold for their children and this impact on child upbringing. It is also found that there is correlation between black African mothers with low income status using a more authoritarian approach of caring for children than mothers with high income status. Shors (2000) underpin the relationship between values and child-bearing patterns which illuminate the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours. He suggests that parents from divers e social class differ in terms of what characteristics they value most for their children and that these differences in value contribute to differences in parenting behaviour. This variation in child-rearing attitudes based on socio-economic variables was underpinned by Shaefer and Edgerton (1995). In order to develop a sensitive knowledge of child abuse, not only across culture but also across socio-economic contexts, it is possible to draw upon knowledge from studies that look at the parenting patterns of black parents with low income. In families it is the children to whom social workers owe the greater duty of care. Children can be clear about what they need. There may be tensions between childrens needs and wishes, parents needs and wishes, the views and wishes of the wider family, of the community, other professionals, and with the requirements of the law, regulation and procedure. Even where the decision is to remove a child from a family the way social workers conduct their business can make a difference. Thus social work has to respond to parental needs- financial and social, for the sake of the children, but may need to abandon them to maintain the primacy of the childs welfare. The consequences of getting the balance wrong in either direction expose both black African children and parents to suffering and pain. Sometimes the nature of the socio-economic issue will demand decisions that appear to undermine that commitment of not putting children at risk of significant harm. Social workers have to take the decision and maintain the commitment. The Government Regulatory Policies And Poverty By the 21st century, there was a growing view that many West African children who were subjects of section 47 investigations were also eligible for services as children in need (section 17 of the 1989 Children Act). Often, such children did not receive these welfare services because of the apparent incident driven focus of child protection services. One way forward in these circumstances was to encourage local authority social work teams to conduct initial assessments, rather than child protection investigations, in borderline cases, with a view to finding less intrusive forms of social work intervention practice that address the wider developmental needs of the child. Procedures supporting such changes were first introduced by local authorities independently, and were subsequently incorporated into government guidance in England, with the expectation that all referrals of children would first be offered an initial assessment except in emergency cases or where it is suspected that a crime has been committed (Department of Health, 1999). Concurrently, a detailed framework was issued regarding the assessment of all children in need (Department of Health, 2000). The now familiar Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families was based on an ecological model of assessment, and included supporting pro formas covering the initial assessment period. Platt, (2000) in his study on refocusing initiative attracted a degree of criticism. For many health and social work professionals, there was concern that serious child protection issues might not receive an adequate response if handled outside child protection procedures (Calder and Hackett, 2003). A key factor here would be whether cases can be switched successfully from family support back into child protection—an issue that has given cause for concern over a number of years (Laming, 2003). Parton (1996) criticized the recommendations of Messages from Research because they ignored the basic socio-economic reality for many families. Furthermore, cu rrent social expectations may support a formal response to allegations of child abuse and neglect. It is thus unreasonable to expect social workers to act alone since to do so runs counter to the dominant view of wider society. The idea that fewer investigations would mean that resources could simply be transferred to family support services is somewhat naive. The resource problems include the provision of social work time, the provision of adequate family support services, and the need to support a period of change and transition. Few would argue that resourcing levels in any of these respects have been adequate (Calder and Hackett, 2003), and the question of resources was sidestepped almost completely by Messages from Research. The difficulties of implementing such changes were highlighted more recently by Cleaver and Walker (2004) in their research on the impact of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. The role of the state in these processes was also examined critically by Spratt and Callan (2004). They argued that reductions in numbers of children on the child protection register have been achieved largely as a result of modern governance and measures to promote compliance with performance targets. Whilst these achievements are laudable, they suggest, they may serve to obscure ‘underlying tensions in the relationship between the state and the family. The idea of refocusing has been affected by complex, often competing pressures since the introduction of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. Arguably, the death of Victoria Climbià © reinforced a ‘child protection orientation, and may have led, in some areas, to a lowering of the child protection threshold (Laming, 2003). The Laming report, furthermore, draws attention to the professional confusions that arise from the distinctions in practice between sections 17 and 47. In circumstances such as this, the role of the social worker in any changing pattern of provision takes on parti cular importance. Chapter Three Social Work Practices History Of Social Work Practice Social work has its roots in the struggle of society to deal with poverty and the resultant problems. Therefore, social work is intricately linked with the idea of charity work; but must be understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions (www.globalvision.org. Retrieved on 14/04/2009). The term social work intervention usually describes work undertaken with individuals, families, groups and communities. In this context the term to cover the use of social work knowledge and skills when using it within a social care organisation to facilitate the provision of services and practice consistent with the Codes of Practice and with standards of service and practice, and to promote the social inclusion and life opportunities of people using services. Successful social work includes the capacity to work effectively within organisations and across organisational boundaries. In the vast majority of instances social work intervention is a collective activity not an individual activity whether as social worker employee or an independent social worker. The most common form of methods of social work intervention is Individual or family casework. Here social work is the intervention. It supports the individual or family to identify, and use, their own and their social networks exp erience and expertise as a resource for problems or difficulties may have resulte